Category Archives: war

FDR’s New Deal

July 21, 2021Figurative Language, Media, Metaphors, Politics, Rhetoric, waranalogies, FDR, metaphors, New Deal, proverbs, slangAndrew Gallagher

Today I am starting a new three-part series comparing the metaphor usage in the speeches of three different US presidents. As you may have heard on the news or read in newspapers or magazines, as soon as President Biden took office this past January, commentators began comparing him to Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Lyndon Baines Johnson. All three presidents faced unprecedented economic, political or medical challenges and launched pioneering social programs in efforts to help the American people recover from the calamities. Biden’s recent efforts to get all Americans vaccinated against Covid-19, to get a massive infrastructure bill passed in Congress and to get a child tax-credit for American families have been especially noteworthy. Pundits in the media have often compared Biden’s efforts to FDR’s New Deal in the 1930s and LBJ’s Great Society in the 1950s. The other day, I heard a TV broadcaster refer to Biden as being “Rooseveltian.”

As a linguist, I immediately began to wonder if the similarities among the presidents in trying to solve these social problems would also correlate to similarities in rhetorical strategies and metaphor usage in their speeches. So, I have spent the past several months doing research on the speeches of FDR and LBJ. I have read and analyzed all of FDR’s famous fireside chats along with his four (yes, four!) inaugural addresses and his speech on the Four Freedoms. I also studied all of LBJ’s speeches, inaugural addresses and State of the Union addresses. Then I studied President Biden’s recent speeches. Not surprisingly, I found many similarities in metaphor usage, but I also discovered that each had their own rhetorical strategies and speaking styles.

Today I focus on the speeches of FDR. In subsequent posts, I will analyze the speeches of Johnson and Biden.

Before I share the metaphor analyses, I should provide a brief summary of the historical context of FDR’s presidency. Born into a wealthy and political family in 1882, Franklin Delano Roosevelt was the fifth cousin of our 26^th president, Theodore “Teddy” Roosevelt. After graduating from Harvard law school, he became a New York state senator, the Assistant Secretary to the Navy and later the governor of New York despite being stricken with polio in 1921 and confined to a wheelchair for the rest of his life. He successfully ran for president in 1932 and became the 32^nd president of the United States. He was reelected three more times (before presidential term limits were established with the 22^ndAmendment in 1951) and served as president from 1933 until his death in April 1945.

Roosevelt became president in 1933 during the middle of the greatest economic crisis in US history, now known as the Great Depression. Catastrophic bank failures in 1929 led to the total ruin of the US economy with thousands of business being closed, millions of dollars in personal savings lost, and 25% unemployment. Roosevelt’s predecessor, Herbert Hoover, was unable to make progress in bringing the country out of the depression. Roosevelt was elected to save the day. He immediately enacted stringent policies on banking regulations, agricultural prices, labor laws and a myriad of other social programs. He also battled with Congress to create pioneering programs which were collectively later named the New Deal, with a bewildering amount of new programs such as the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) which provided money to state governments, the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) which attempted to control farm prices, the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) which put millions of unemployed people to work on rural projects, and the Public Works Administration (PWA) which focused on infrastructure projects. He also created government agencies which we may take for granted today, such as the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) which protects personal savings accounts from losses due to bank failures, and of course, the Social Security Act which provides a guaranteed source of income to retired Americans, previously unavailable.

If these crises weren’t already enough for one president to handle, World War II broke out in Europe when Hitler invaded Poland in September 1939, and then came to our shores, of course, with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. Thus, while taking care of thousands of issues on the home front, he also had to turn his focus to international war efforts in both Europe and the Pacific. Ironically, the war helped end the Great Depression by putting millions of Americans to work in the war effort.

If he hadn’t been busy enough doing all that, he began a series of radio broadcasts to the American people which became known as his fireside chats. While he is most famous for his line in his first inaugural address, “There is nothing to fear but fear itself” he built a great rapport with the American public through his comments in these fireside chats. He was perhaps inspired by his wife, Eleanor Roosevelt, who was equally progressive and was famous for her own radio broadcasts. I had always thought that FDR’s fireside chats were weekly radio programs but they actually occurred only about once every three months. In these addresses, he patiently explained all the steps he was taking to rescue the economy and create these new social programs. I was quite awe-struck reading these speeches. His knowledge of agriculture, industry, banking, military history, etc., was very impressive. There seemed to be no subject on which he was not an expert. It was also clear that he was well respected by the American people. For example, as World War II started, he asked people to buy world maps. Then, in his fireside chats, he asked his listeners to take out their maps and follow along as he explained where “our boys” were fighting in Europe and the Pacific. Apparently, world maps quickly sold out all over the country as his listeners followed along with his descriptions of the war efforts. Sad to say, it’s hard to imagine that kind of loyalty to a president, or knowledge of geography, among Americans today.

Without further ado, here are a few notes on the rhetorical strategies and metaphor usage in FDR’s speeches. As usual, the examples which follow are presented in quotation marks. Each metaphor will be highlighted in italics, but note that the italics are mine, not in the original. Also, in the interest of accurate citation, I have made efforts to note from which speech of which president each metaphor was used. I was lucky enough to find a book containing all of the fireside chats. You may find a link for it here. For example, a metaphor from Roosevelt’s fireside chat on April 28, 1935, would be marked as R-FC-4/28/35. A metaphor from his third inaugural address would be listed simply as R-IA#3. These inaugural addresses are short documents that can easily be found online.

Given that FDR is famous for his fireside chats and having a close rapport with the American public, I wondered if this colloquial rhetorical style would correlate to use of proverbs, slang or analogies in a folksy manner of speaking. I was not surprised to find many such examples.

Analogies, Proverbs and Slang

In one brilliant section of prose, he compares the three branches of government to three horses plowing a field. Apparently, he had been criticized in the media for trying to control Congress, when he was actually trying to get them to do their job. Thus, he offered this lengthy analogy.

Example: “Last Thursday I described the American form of government as a three horse team provided by the Constitution to the American people so that their field might be plowed. The three horses are, of course, the three branches of government—the Congress, the Executive and the courts. Two of the horses are pulling in unison today; the third is not. Those who have intimated that the President of the United States is trying to drive that team, overlook the simple fact that the President, as Chief Executive, is himself one of the three horses.

It is the American people themselves who are in the driver’s seat.

It is the American people themselves who want the furrow plowed.

It is the American people themselves who expect the third horse to pull in unison with the other two.” (R-FC-3/9/37)

He also used proverbs such as killing two birds with one stone several times in his speeches. For instance,

Example: “In creating this civilian conservation corps we are killing two birds with one stone. We are clearly enhancing the value of our natural resources and we are relieving an appreciable amount of actual distress.” (R-FC-5/7/33)

Roosevelt also used a few colorful slang terms that seem very amusing in the context of the serious issues he was constantly dealing with. For instance, he often complained about corrupt politicians or business leaders who were trying to cheat the government. He referred to these people as chiselers or black sheep.

Example: “There are chiselers in every walk of life; there are those in every industry who are guilty of unfair practices; every profession has its black sheep…” (R-FC- 4/8/35)

He also had a few choice words for ignorant people who were in denial about the reality of the brutality of war. He bluntly referred to these people as cheerful idiots.

Example: “There have always been cheerful idiots in this country who believed that there would be no more war for us, if everybody in America would only return to their homes and lock their front doors behind them.” (R-FC-12/24/43)

Beyond these unusual expressions, FDR used a wide variety of the metaphors I often describe in this blog. In keeping with his folksy communication style, he often used terms from farming or industry to describe his government policies.

Industry

FDR often referred to the workings of government as machinery. In his very first fireside chat, he described his efforts to get the country out of the Great Depression as such. Later he used the same term to describe how the government was increasing funding for the war effort. He later described the victories at D-Day as a hammer blow to the Nazis.

Example: “We have provided the machinery to restore our financial system…” (R-FC-3/12/33)

Example: “The machinery to carry out this act of the Congress was put into effect within twelve hours after the bill was signed.” (R-FC-10/12/42)

Example: “And on the west—the hammer blow which struck the coast of France last week [the D-Day invasion] last Tuesday morning, less than a week ago, was the culmination of careful planning and strenuous preparation.” (R-FC- 6/23/44)

Farming

Roosevelt liked using terms from farming techniques to describe some of his policies. I already provided the example of three horses plowing a field. Additionally, as I mentioned, he commonly explained complex financial or military strategies to the public in his fireside chats and he was confident that they could sift the wheat from the chaff, or that they understood what he was saying.

Example: “The overwhelming majority of people in this country know how to sift the wheat from the chaff in what they hear and what they read.” (R-FC-4/28/35-45)

Animals

Roosevelt also used a few colorful animal metaphors. He described the Nazi U-boats as rattlesnakes and argued for preemptive strikes against them. This was surprising to read as this was from a speech in September 1941, three months before Pearl Harbor. He also makes a clever turn on the idea of the bald eagle as an American symbol of speed and power, as compared to the slowness of a turtle. In his final inaugural address, after being dragged into World War II, he claims that he has learned the lesson that Americans cannot live like ostriches or dogs in a manger.

Example: “But when you see a rattlesnake poised to strike, you do not wait until he has struck before you crush him.

These Nazi submarines and raiders are the rattlesnakes of the Atlantic.” (R-FC-9/11/41)

Example: “Now, many of those same people, afraid that we may be sticking our necks out, want our national bird to be turned into a turtle. But we prefer to retain the eagle as it is—flying high and striking hard.

…we reject the turtle policy…” (R-FC-2/23/42)

Example: “We have learned that we cannot live alone, at peace; that our own well-being is dependent on the well-being of other nations far away. We have learned that we must live as men, not as ostriches, nor as dogs in the manger.” (R-IA#4)

Nature & Natural Disasters

Roosevelt also uses several significant metaphors of nature. He describes the Great Depression in terms of frozen assets and withered leaves of industry. One of the most powerful forces in nature is that of a flood. In a beautifully written extended metaphorical passage, he compares the efforts of the United Nations in defeating the Nazis to countries building levees to hold off flood waters.

Example: “…the means of exchange are frozen in the currents of trade; the withered leaves of industrial enterprise lie on every side…” (R-IA#1)

Example: “Today, in the same kind of community effort, only very much larger, the United Nations and their peoples have kept the levees of civilization high enough to prevent the floods of aggression and barbarism and wholesale murder from engulfing us all. The flood has been raging for four years. At last we are beginning to gain on it; but the waters have not receded enough for us to relax our sweating work with the sand bags. In this war bond campaign we are filling bags and placing them against the flood—bags which are essential if we are to stand off the ugly torrent which is trying to sweep us all away.” (R-FC-9/8/43)

Buildings

It is very common in English for speakers to compare abstract processes to physical buildings. Thus we have commonly used metaphors such as foundations, pillars or simply to build something. In one of his first fireside chats, FDR compares his new economic policies to a granite building. Later he describes the Civilian Conservation Corps as a temple of recovery. In his speech on the “Four Freedoms” he describes the foundations of a healthy democracy. In one of his discussions of the advancement of the Japanese armies during World War II, he describes them as knocking on the gatesof the Australia and New Zealand.

Example: “We have built a granite foundation in a period of confusion.” (R-FC-7/24/33)

Example: “Our progress out of the depression is obvious. But that is not all that you and I mean by the new order of things. Our pledge was not merely to do a patchwork job with secondhand materials. By using the new materials of social justice we have undertaken to erect on the old foundations a more enduring structure for the better use of future generations.” (R-IA#2)

Example: “For there is nothing mysterious about the foundations of a healthy and strong democracy. The basic things expected by our people of their political and economic systems are simple. They are:

Equality of opportunity for youth and for others.

Jobs for those who can work.

Security for those who need it.

The ending of special privilege for the few.

The preservation of civil liberties for all.” (R-Four Freedoms)

Example: The Civilian Conservation Corps is a “temple of recovery” – “We are building, stone by stone, the columns of which will support that habitation. Those columns are many in number and though, for a moment the progress of one column may disturb the progress on the pillar next to it, the work on all of them must proceed without let or hindrance.” (R-FC-10/23/33)

Example: “Japan was in control of the western Aleutian Islands; and in the South Pacific was knocking at the gates of Australia and New Zealand—and was also threatening India.” (R-FC-6/23/44)

Personification

Politicians often describe a country as if it is a person. In his third inaugural address, Roosevelt writes a tour de force description of the United States as a person with a body, mind and faith.

Example: “A nation, like a person, has a body–a body that must be fed and clothed and housed, invigorated and rested, in a manner that measures up to the objectives of our time.

A nation, like a person, has a mind–a mind that must be kept informed and alert, that must know itself, that understands the hopes and the needs of its neighbors–all the other nations that live within the narrowing circle of the world.

And a nation, like a person, has something deeper, something more permanent, something larger than the sum of all its parts. It is that something which matters most to its future–which calls forth the most sacred guarding of its present.

It is a thing for which we find it difficult–even impossible–to hit upon a single, simple word.

And yet we all understand what it is–the spirit–the faith of America. It is the product of centuries. It was born in the multitudes of those who came from many lands–some of high degree, but mostly plain people, who sought here, early and late, to find freedom more freely.” (R-IA#3)

Journeys

Another common set of metaphors used by politicians is when they compare the political progress on some issue as going down a road or crossing a bridge. Roosevelt also uses these journey metaphors. He describes progress on controlling farm prices as taking steps and being headed in the right direction while his administration was creating all government agencies step by step and affirming that the American people did not want to go backwards. Finally, as early as 1942, he was already confident that the Nazis and Italians would lose the war since their peoples had gone down the bitter road to defeat.

Example: “My aim in taking this step is to establish and maintain continuous control.”

“…we are on our way and we are headed in the right direction.” (R-FC-10/23/33).

Example: “Step by step we have created all the government agencies necessary…” (R-FC-9/30/34)

Example: “…the electorate of America wants no backward steps taken.” (R-FC-4/14/38)

Example: “With this change in our moral climate and our rediscovered ability to improve our economic order, we have set our feet upon the road of enduring progress.

Shall we pause now and turn our back upon the road that lies ahead? Shall we call this the promised land? Or, shall we continue on our way? For ‘each age is a dream that is dying, or one that is coming to birth.’” (R-IA#2)

Example: “In the German and Italian peoples themselves there is a growing conviction that the cause of Nazism and Fascism is hopeless—that their political and military leaders have led them down the bitter road which leads not to world conquest but to final defeat.” (R-FC-4/28/42)

Summary

There are dozens of other interesting examples of metaphors in FDR’s speeches but space does not allow me to cover them all. Clearly, President Roosevelt was a master communicator and effectively used specific rhetorical strategies and common metaphors to get his points across to the American people while dealing with two of the greatest crises of the 20^th century—the Great Depression and World War II.

Stay tuned for more fascinating figurative language in the analyses of the speeches of Lyndon Baines Johnson.

A Tsunami of Immigrants?

August 31, 2018Figurative Language, Immigration, Media, Metaphors, Politics, Rhetoric, warconservatives, Democrats, Donald Trump, economics, ESL/EFL learners, figurative language, immigrants, liberals, media, metaphors, politicians, politics, Republicans, warAndrew Gallagher

The contentious topic of immigration has been in the news the past few weeks. The Trump administration allegedly directed two government agencies – DSH, the Department of Homeland Security, and ICE – Immigration and Customs Enforcement – to separate children from their parents at several different border checkpoints in Texas. Public outcry has led to policy changes and the reunification of most of these families. However, the crisis highlighted years of discrimination against immigrants going back to the founding of this country. This sort of discrimination against immigrants has been alive and well in Europe for hundreds of years as well.

Clues of this type of discrimination can be found in the metaphors used to describe immigrants. While many are neutral terms, others are clearly negative in their connotations. A few years ago, the blogger David Shariatmadari wrote a nice article entitled “Swarms, floods and marauders: the toxic metaphors of the migration debate” on how negative metaphors in England are used against immigrants using such terms as swarms or floods of migrants or describing them as marauders. Also, a recent article in the Atlantic by Franklin Foer describes “How ICE Went Rogue,” detailing how ICE agents have become increasingly aggressive in arresting and deporting immigrants regardless of their legal or illegal immigration status. Formerly, ICE agents were restricted by government policies as to whom they could arrest. After Donald Trump became president, ICE officials claimed that their handcuffs were removed.

I have discussed metaphors of immigration in past blog posts but I thought it was time to take a fresh look. I originally thought that most immigration metaphors were negative, such as those listed above, but recently I have found examples of neutral metaphors, i.e., those that simply describe immigrants or immigration issues without negative connotations. What follows is a short list of metaphors from several different concepts including war, insects, animals, nature, rivers and oceans. For clarity, I indicate whether each type of metaphor is neutral or negative. I include examples from recent news articles with links to each source. Some examples are excerpts from articles; others are merely headlines. Italics are mine.

War/Military Operations – Negative

I found a few examples of metaphors from wars or military operations to describe immigrants. In addition to the marauder example mentioned earlier, I found evidence of politicians describing their countries as being under siege, under attack or being on the front lines of the battle with immigrants.

under siege

Example: “British towns are being ‘swamped’ by immigrants, and their residents are ‘under siege’, Michael Fallon, the UK defence secretary, said on Sunday.” (source: The Financial Times)

under attack

Example: “Trump Uses Language of Exterminators in Attack on ‘Illegal Immigrants’” (source: New Yorker Magazine)

front lines

Example: “A town at the front lines of the migrant crisis: ‘We can’t let them die’” (source: the Los Angeles Times)

Insects and Animals – Negative

Sadly, large groups of immigrants coming into a country are often compared to bothersome insects or animals. Donald Trump recently compared immigrants to animals that were infestingour country. I include his tweet below along with a stunning criticism of this language usage by blogger Josh Marshall. I also include examples of swarminginsects and stampeding cattle as suggested by Attorney General Jeff Sessions. Finally, I include the controversial example of Donald Trump calling some immigrants animals. In his defense, he was referring to the violent MS-13 gang members, not all immigrants.

infest

Example: “Democrats are the problem. They don’t care about crime and want illegal immigrants, no matter how bad they may be, to pour into and infest our Country, like MS-13. They can’t win on their terrible policies, so they view them as potential voters!” (source: New Yorker Magazine)

“Josh Marshall makes the unavoidable historical connection:

‘The use of the word ‘infest’ to talk about people is literally out of the Nazi/anti-Semites’ playbook for talking about the Jewish threat. It was also a standard for talking about Chinese in the western United States and it remains part of the vocabulary for talking about Romani (Gypsies) in parts of Europe. This is the most hard-boiled kind of racist demagogic language, the kind that in other parts of the world has often preceded and signaled the onset of exterminationist violence. The verb ‘to infest’ is one generally used to describe insects or vermin (rats), creatures which are literally exterminated when they become present in a house or building or neighborhood.'”

swarm

Example: “David Cameron criticised over migrant ‘swarm’ language” (source: BBC)

animals

Example: “We have people coming into the country, or trying to come in — and we’re stopping a lot of them — but we’re taking people out of the country. You wouldn’t believe how bad these people are. These aren’t people. These are animals.” (source: New York Times)

stampede

Example: “We are not going to let this country be overwhelmed,” Sessions told the press at a Wednesday news conference. “People are not going [to] caravan or otherwise stampede our border. We need legality and integrity in the system. People should wait their turn, ask to apply lawfully before they enter our country. So we’re sending a message worldwide.” (Source: Newsweek)

Nature – Neutral

It is very common to use our experiences with nature to describe abstract processes. With immigration issues, I found many examples of metaphors based on trees and erosion of hills to describe these issues, including problems that have a root cause or are deep rooted, grassroots opposition to the Trump administration’s immigration policies, the erosion of national security or the danger of going down a slippery slope to beginning to take away civil rights of Americans.

deep rooted

Example: “There are an estimated 11m-12m immigrants living in the United States illegally, most of them Latino. Many have families, jobs and property, and far deeper roots in America than in their countries of origin.” (source: The Economist)

grassroots

Example: “From ‘angry grandmas’ to lemonade stands: How grass-roots groups stepped in to help separated families” (source: CNN)

root cause

Example: “Letter: To curb illegal immigration, find the root cause” (source: The Chicago Tribune)

erode

Example: “President Donald Trump’s recent tweets against open borders come as no surprise. Indeed, even fervent immigration advocates worry that open borders would lower the wages of low-skilled natives, erode national security, and overburden the social safety net.” (source: USA Today)

slippery slope

Example: “The slippery slope of the Trump administration’s political embrace of calling MS-13 ‘animals’” (source: The Washington Post)

Nature – Negative

There are also a few examples of metaphors of nature with negative connotations. Since some immigrants come into countries illegally, they often hide from authorities and can be described as living in the shadows. The difficult social and economic problems of immigration are sometimes called thorny issues while these immigration issues can be compared to a swamp or quagmire. Sadly, movements of immigrants into a country may be compared to a natural disaster such as an avalanche.

shadows

Example: “Illustrations tell story of family ‘living in the shadows’ because of illegal immigration” (source: West Palm Beach TV)

thorny

Example: “The Thorny Economics of Illegal Immigration” (source: The Wall Street Journal)

quagmire

Example: “Republicans caught in immigration quagmire” (source: USimmigration.com)

avalanche

Example: “Spain set for ‘avalanche’ of African immigrants” (source: The Local)

Rivers and Oceans – Neutral

Movement of people is often compared to the movement of water in rivers or oceans. These metaphors can be both neutral or negative in their connotations. A few neutral metaphors include having a wave, tide or steady stream of immigrants. The word influx is of Latin origin meaning “flowing in.” Thus we also find an influx of immigrants in news articles. We can also see a ripple effect of one event influencing another. In this case, we see the ripple effect of immigration policies on the lives of immigrants.

wave

Example: “The United States experienced major waves of immigration during the colonial era, the first part of the 19th century and from the 1880s to 1920.” (source: history.com)

tide

Example: “The Deadly Cost of Turning Back the Immigration Tide” (source: the Daily Beast)

steady stream

Example: “Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas economists estimate that immigrants and their children comprised more than half of the US workforce growth in the last 20 years and expect this group to make up an even larger percentage over the next 20 years. And, according to Pew Research Center, without a steady stream of a total of 18 million immigrants between now and 2035, the share of the US working-age population could decrease to 166 million.” (source: CNN)

influx

Example: “Illegal Immigration Influx Continues — 50,000 Attempt Border Crossing for Second Straight Month” (source: townhall.com)

ripple effect

Example: “The deadly ripple effect of harsh immigration policies” (source: open democracy.net)

Rivers and Oceans – Negative

We can also find examples of water movement metaphors with a negative connotation. As we saw with an avalanche of immigrants, some metaphors compare immigrant movements to natural disasters, this time caused by rivers or oceans. Thus, we can find examples of politicians trying to stem the flow of immigrants, being swamped or flooded by immigrants. In an extreme example, we can also talk about a tsunami of immigrants as if they are causing great damage and destruction.

stem the flow

Example: “TRUMP’S WALL ISN’T GOING TO STEM THE FLOW OF UNDOCUMENTED IMMIGRANTS” (source: Newsweek)

swamped

Example: “British towns are being “swamped” by immigrants, and their residents are “under siege”, Michael Fallon, the UK defence secretary, said on Sunday.” (source: The Financial Times)

flood

Example: “Myth No. 1: Undocumented immigrants are flooding into the United States” (source: The Washington Post)

tsunami

Example: “Immigration crisis: Official: ‘A tsunami of people crossing the border’” (source: Fox News)

*******

The obvious question is why people have such negative attitudes towards immigrants. In the United States, everyone except Native Americans is an immigrant. And yet some politicians, themselves with immigrant backgrounds, set policies restricting movement of immigrants into the country. The usual explanation is that these immigrants are coming into the country illegally whereas their ancestors came legally. However, most immigrants would come legally if the laws were not so restrictive. Almost all migrants go to another country to escape persecution, economic crisis or to create a better life for themselves and their children. My own Irish ancestors came to the United States after the potato famine in Ireland during which thousands of people died from starvation. Many modern immigrants coming into the United States are escaping wars in Central America while those going into Europe and the United Kingdom are escaping brutal conflicts in the Middle East. Who can blame them for trying to survive? I would hope that modern governments accept immigrants into their countries with the same compassion and understanding that was extended to our ancestors.

Bernie Sanders’ Uphill Battle

May 16, 2016Figurative Language, Media, Metaphors, Politics, Rhetoric, warBernie Sanders, Democrats, ESL/EFL learners, figurative language, Hillary Clinton, media, metaphors, politicians, politics, Republicans, warAndrew Gallagher

Many newspaper and television reports have recently described Bernie Sanders’ quest for the Democratic nominee as an uphill battle. It seems that Hillary Clinton has an insurmountable lead in the votes and delegates to win the nomination. The phrase uphill battle is an interesting metaphor in this usage for several reasons. At first glance, it seems that it is a mixed metaphor, mixing journeys and military concepts. Technically, there is such a thing as an uphill battle, one in which an army must fight an enemy while moving up a hill or mountain. However, it is more likely that we think of this as a sort of compound metaphor combining the physical struggle of walking uphill with the danger of fighting a battle in a war. This compound metaphor makes us think of obstacles to journeys and military campaigns. I have described some of these metaphors in past blogs, but it is interesting to see how they are combined into one conceptual metaphor. Here is a review of metaphors of obstacles on a journey and military battles.

Obstacles on a Journey

obstacles

On some journeys, there may be obstacles or things that prevent continuous progress, such as animals crossing the road, snow or rocks falling on the road, or bad weather conditions. Metaphorically, there may also be obstacles to continuous progress for the success of a program or any process.

Example: Barack Obama had to overcome many obstacles in his path to becoming the first African-American president including growing up poor, not having a father, and succeeding in an environment dominated by white politicians.

block

A block is a large log, brick or any compacted mass. A block can literally prevent the passage along a journey or prevent progress in an endeavor.

Example: Unfortunately, when a Republican president is in office, the Democrats often block the passage of the Republican bills, while Republicans often block the passage of Democratic bills when a Democrat is in office.

roadblocks

Similar to the idea of obstacles, roadblocks can literally block the continuous progress on a journey or metaphorically block the progress of a program.

Example: In the first two years of Barack Obama’s presidency, the Republicans seemed determined to prevent any success of the Democrats so they put up many roadblocks in Congress.

stumble, stumbling block

A person can also trip or stumble on a branch or a brick in the path along a journey. Metaphorically, one can also stumble or have to overcome a stumbling block in the middle of a process.

Example: President Obama encountered many stumbling blocks from the Republicans and insurance companies when trying to pass health care reform in 2010.

impasse

When one cannot continue on a journey because of a road being completely blocked by a natural disaster, we say that we have met an impasse, literally something that blocks the passage of a person.

Example: When Bill Clinton tried to pass health care reform in 1994, he ran into an impasse with insurance companies and other politicians and failed to pass any new legislation.

break down barriers

Another word for a roadblock is a barrier. To continue on a journey, one may have to break down the barriers. Metaphorically, one may also need to break down barriers to make progress in a process.

Example: Barack Obama had to break down many race barriers on his way to become the first African-American president of the United States.

bridge, bridge builder, bridge the divide, bridge the gulf

If one needs to cross a river or a valley during a journey, one may need to build a bridge to be able to continue the journey. Literally, this is called bridging the divide or bridging the gulf.

Metaphorically, when two people or groups cannot agree on something, someone may offer a compromise to solve the problem. This may also be called bridging the divide. The person who does this may be called a bridge or a bridge builder.

Example: Sometimes a U.S. president may need to bridge the divide between the Republican and Democratic members of Congress.

clear the way

Sometimes, if a road is blocked, one must clear the branches, wood or rocks away before one can continue. This process is referred to as clearing the way. In common terms, we can also clear the way for a process to continue after it had been delayed.

Example: In the 1960s, the work of Martin Luther King, Jr. cleared the way for the civil rights laws that were passed later that decade.

potholes to fill

Paved roads in cities often develop holes after many years of traffic and bad weather. Some of these holes are so big people say that they are as big as a cooking pot. City crews must fill the so-called potholes so that people can continue to drive on these roads without hurting their vehicles. Metaphorically, any process that has many difficulties or delays may be described as having many potholes to fill especially when used with another road metaphor.

Example: After the economic crisis of 2008, President Obama had many potholes to fill on the road to recovery considering problems with the banks, corporations and high unemployment.

sidestep

Some obstacles in the road are very small and can simply be avoided by walking around them. We can call this action sidestepping the obstacle. In common terms, we also say that one can sidestep a problem or an issue by not dealing with it directly.

Example: Many candidates running for office sidestep controversial issues such as abortion and gay marriage.

recourse

A course is a route that one follows on a journey. The route to return to the starting point of a journey may be called a recourse. Metaphorically, a recourse is something that one must consider when the first plan does not work.

Example: After years of fighting a war in Afghanistan, the U.S. government had little recourse when their military could not defeat the Taliban there.

long, uphill task/struggle/battle

Walking on a level road is easy; walking uphill is more difficult. Metaphorically, a difficult task may be called an uphill struggle or an uphill battle.

Example: When John McCain returned to the United States after being a prisoner of war in Vietnam for several years, he had an uphill struggle to regain his health and his military career.

look beyond/move beyond

On a long journey with many hills, one must try to look over or look beyond the hills to see the rest of the road. In common terms, one must look or move beyond an obstacle to solve a problem.

Example: After many lost seats in the 2014 midterm elections, Democrats had to look beyond their losses and plan for the 2016 presidential election.

Battles

The Battle of New Orleans - Andrew Jackson wins the final battle of the War of 1812 on January 8, 1815 (painting by Edward Percy Moran, 1910) — The Battle of New Orleans – Andrew Jackson wins the final battle of the War of 1812 on January 8, 1815 (painting by Edward Percy Moran, 1910)

primary battles

Battles are the names of the primary engagements between armies in a war. Metaphorically, battles can also be fought verbally between people or groups. The notion of battle is commonly used in politics.

Example: In every presidential primary, there are many battles among the candidates to gain the nomination of the party.

battle cry

At the start of every battle, there is a call or cry from the commanding officer to alert the troops to begin fighting. The phrase battle cry can also be used to indicate the beginning of a political process.

Example: In 2011, the Occupy Wall Street protestors used the slogan “We are the 99%! as their battle cry to gain support against the richest 1% of the nation controlling the government.

battleground states

The land where battles are fought are called battlegrounds. In politics, states in which voters may vote for either Democrats or Republicans are called battleground states when candidates fight for the votes for their party.

Example: Ohio and Florida are often considered battleground states in presidential elections.

The Battle of Cedar Mountain, Virginia, August 9, 1862 - Currier and Ives, 1862 — The Battle of Cedar Mountain, Virginia, August 9, 1862 – Currier and Ives, 1862

battle lines are drawn

The exact line separating the land controlled by two fighting armies is called the battle line. Metaphorically, a battle line is the ideological separation between two people or groups. In a public political argument, we may say that battle lines are drawn based on a certain view of a controversial topic.

Example: In the 2016 election, Democrats drew many battles lines with Republicans over the tax breaks given to millionaires and billionaires.

combat

Combat is another word for battles fought between armies in a war. Metaphorically, any verbal argument can be described as combat as well. As a verb the word combat can be used to describe efforts to fight against something.

Example: George W. Bush worked hard to combat the spread of AIDS in Africa during his presidency.

Members of Co. C, 1st Bn, 8th Inf, 1st Bde, 4th Inf Div, descend the side of Hill 742, located five miles northwest of Dak To. 14–17 November 1967.

firefight

A firefight is an intense battle between two armies in which a great deal of gunfire is exchanged. In politics, a heated argument may also be called a firefight.

Example: Sometimes a peaceful presidential debate turns into a firefight among the top candidates.

clash

The word clash is an onomatopoetic word meaning that it represents the sound made by two metallic objects hitting together. A physical confrontation between people or battle between armies may be called a clash. However, metaphorically, a disagreement in words or ideas between two people or groups may also be called a clash. Often we speak of a clash of personalities between two people.

Example: During the 2016 Democratic presidential primary, Hillary Clinton and Bernie Sanders clashed over positions on the economy.

*******

As I have mentioned many times, political campaigns are thought of as military operations, judging by the amount of war metaphors we used to describe them. The process of winning a nomination or becoming elected is also thought of as a long journey filled with obstacles. When a candidate struggles to win a nomination for his or her party, it is logical that the process be called an uphill battle.

Donald Trump: Battle Metaphors

March 15, 2016Figurative Language, Immigration, Media, Metaphors, Politics, Rhetoric, warDonald Trump, ESL/EFL learners, figurative language, Hillary Clinton, politicians, politics, rhetoric, warAndrew Gallagher

Two recent articles on Donald Trump in Time magazine illustrate the ubiquity of metaphors of fighting, battles, and war in American politics. Sadly, just as I was working on this blog post about violent metaphors, violence erupted at a Trump rally in Chicago on Friday, March 11. It never ceases to amaze me that politicians treat their profession as a boxing match. These two articles include a long piece by David Von Drehle entitled “Destination Unknown: As Donald Trump piles up GOP delegates, the nations braces for a very difficult 2016” (March 14, 2016, pp. 34-39), and a shorter piece by Alex Altman entitled “Donald Trump: Tribal Warrior” (March 14, 2016, pp. 40-43). The examples below are taken from the print articles and are labeled as being written by David Von Drehle [DVD] or from Alex Altman [AA]. Italics are mine.

Here in no particular order are a dizzying array of battle metaphors in these two articles.

Boxing and Fighting

Boxing metaphors are some of the most commonly used types of figurative language in politics. In this case, we see examples of lightweight versus heavyweight boxing weight classes. We also talk about throwing punches, beating an opponent, or stopping the bleeding after a fight. An opponent beaten badly may be fighting for his or her life.

Judo is one of many different types of martial arts. One way of defeating an opponent in this sport is to do a judo-flip and pin the other person to the ground. In ancient Rome, fighters called gladiators fought each other and wild animals to the death.

lightweight

Example: “Judging the baby-faced junior Senator from Florida to be short of gravitas, Trump dubbed him ‘little Marco Rubio, the lightweight.’ Sensing shiftiness in Texas Senator Cruz, he coined the name Lying Ted.” [DVD, p. 38]

throwing punches

Example: “You can be sure, as well, he’ll be throwing punches of his own.” [DVD, p. 39]

Example: “’The reason their punches don’t land is they’re being thrown in a world that’s dying,” says former House Speaker Newt Gingrich, who says Trump may ultimately prove to be ‘the most effective anti-left candidate of our times.’” [AA, p. 43]

fighting for life

Example: “A new Justice Department team might reopen the matter, he implies, “so she is literally fighting for her life” in her effort to beat Trump.” [DVD, p. 39]

beat

Example: “CAN HE BEAT HER [Hillary Clinton]?” [DVD, p. 38]

bleeding

Example: “Their jobs, their futures, are bleeding away to ‘Mexico, China, India, Vietnam, Thailand’–Trump ticks through the list at his rallies.” [DVD, p. 39]

judo-flip

Example: “He is, they acknowledge, a force like no other: an utterly unpredictable candidate who has judo-flipped the entire political apparatus.” [DVD, p. 39]

gladiatorial mojo

Example: “The same gladiatorial mojo that powers football, war movies, professional wrestling and Judge Judy Trump transposes into a political key.” [DVD, p. 36]

War and Battles

Military metaphors are also very common in politics. We can talk about sharpening a weapon, and having a military strategy of dividing and conquering smaller nations. Armies can go on the offense when starting a war while local people may rise up and fight by bringing torches and homemade weapons to a battle.

In occupied countries during a war, local people who fight back against the occupiers are called resistance fighters, while all soldiers and fighters fight against the invaders, and may have to fight in hand-to-hand combat, referred to in Spanish as fighting mano a mano. One of the most famous resistance fighters in history was the Scottish warrior William Wallace who fought against the British in the 13^th century. He was referred to as Braveheart in a popular 1995 Mel Gibson film of the same name. Invading armies can also harm or kill civilians in what as known as dragooning, based on the name of 17^th century French soldiers.

During a war, armies decide how to defeat their enemies by assigning targets for their guns and bombs, and they attack their enemies. They may also burn the buildings and property of their enemies or putting them into flames. Metaphorically a word meaning to cause widespread disruption and damage to a process is called being inflammatory . At the end of a battle or a long war there is often vast destruction of lives and property. This is known as carnage. Finally, smaller wars between tribes instead of countries leads to the metaphors of tribal warriors who fight for their side in a war. These types of wars may be described as an us-against-them problem. Wars always have hidden threats and dangers for local citizens which may create fearful tribes.

sharpening

Example: “Even Hillary Clinton is sharpening her smooth-edged coalition politics, telling voters they’re ‘right to be angry.’” [AA, p. 41]

divide and conquer

Example: “How does he win? Divide and conquer” [AA, subtitle of article, p. 41]

on the offense

Example: “’He is totally on offense, 24/7.’ This gives Trump ‘the potential to scramble the electoral map.’” [DVD, p. 39]

torches

Example: “The party bosses didn’t spot the torches on the horizon because they live comfortably cushioned from the concerns of Trump’s tribe.” [AA, p. 43]

resistance fighter, Braveheart, fight to stop, fighting mano a mano [hand to hand combat]

Example: “What about those stop-Trump schemes? Tim Miller, a Bush spokesman turned resistance fighter, made like Braveheart on Super Tuesday. ‘The fight to stop Donald Trump from getting the nomination is intensifying regardless of tonight’s outcome,’ he declared. Cruz suggested it was time for Trump’s other rivals to drop out and let him go mano a mano.” [DVD, p. 38]

dragoon

Example: “He hasn’t dragooned supporters into believing he’s a conservative; he’s leading a willing rebellion against modern conservatism itself.” [AA, p. 43]

target

Example: “Close allies of Clinton believe that Trump’s big mouth makes him a deliciously vulnerable target.” [DVD, p. 38]

Berlin, Germany at the end of World War II

attacks, attack ads, inflammatory, carnage

Example: “Democrats have been stockpiling research and conducting polls on Trump since last summer, according to sources, and they are studying Cruz and Rubio as the Republican rivals test-drive attacks ranging from the size of Trump’s hands to the mysteries of his unreleased tax returns. They promise a long barrage of attack ads and negative messages in summer and fall, bristling with Trump’s most inflammatory moments, in hopes of motivating Democrats to go to the polls. Meanwhile, Clinton will float above the carnage, they predict, inviting independent women and even Republicans to join her bid for history.” [DVD, p. 39]

Example: “Trump’s eagerness to be inflammatory on issues like deporting Mexicans and creating a registry for Muslims will drive that number higher, she predicts.” [DVD, p. 39]

Example: “On the campaign trail, he leans on stereotypes to explain the world, in ways both inflammatory and complimentary.” [AA, p. 41]

tribal warrior

Example: “Donald Trump: Tribal Warrior” [AA, title of article, p. 41]

tribal warfare, us against them, enemies

Example: “But nobody does tribal warfare like Trump. ‘It’s us-against-them politics,’ says Roger Stone, a Republican consultant and former Trump adviser. ‘You define yourself by who your enemies are.’” [AA, p. 41]

Example: “Trump warns of enemies lurking everywhere.” [AA, p. 43]

new tribe

Example: “Now the same knack for divisive rhetoric could tear the Republican Party in two, leaving Trump as the commander of a new tribe, a coalition of the disaffected.” [AA, p. 41]

Example: “But there is no tribe Trump condemns more than the political elites, both Democratic and Republican.” [AA, p. 43]

hidden threats, fearful tribes

Example: “This theme, of the hidden threat lurking in our midst, is part of what makes Trump a fitting prophet for a fearful tribe.” [AA, p. 43]

*******

As I said, it is always amazing to see how we speak of American politics with such violent metaphors. It is not surprising that real violence sometimes erupts in the political process. I hope that the recent rise in hateful rhetoric is short-lived and politicians and their supporters can revert to more civil and respectful discourse.

Next Time: More metaphors in the news

Flashback: Obama’s Speech in Cairo, 2009

March 1, 2016Figurative Language, Media, Metaphors, Politics, Rhetoric, warCairo, media, metaphors, Middle East, obama, warAndrew Gallagher

Following last week’s post, I continue today to add another analysis of the metaphors of Barack Obama’s speeches in response to requests from my readers. On June 4, 2009, President Obama gave a speech in Cairo, Egypt to discuss the challenges of controlling the unrest in the Middle East. The speech may seem a bit dated now, but still reveals many important views of the newly elected president with regard to the Middle East. It also contains a wide variety of metaphors. The examples included today range from metaphors from nature, farming and ranching, music and theater, buildings, personification, physical forces and journeys. The metaphors of physical forces are especially interesting in that Obama uses terms of physical stress and tension to describe the troubles in the Middle East.

All examples are taken directly from the transcript of the speech. Some quotations are repeated if they contain metaphors in several different categories. Italics are mine.

Nature

Many political speeches include metaphors from nature due to our close relationship with our environment. In this speech, President Obama uses the metaphors of political movements being born, political tension being rooted in historical forces, while describing separation between religious groups as being in flames, and learning as being a light carried through the centuries.

Example: “We were born out of revolution against an empire. We were founded upon the ideal that all are created equal, and we have shed blood and struggled for centuries to give meaning to those words — within our borders, and around the world.”

Example: “We meet at a time of great tension between the United States and Muslims around the world — tension rooted in historical forces that go beyond any current policy debate.”

Example: “That is the world we seek. But we can only achieve it together.

Example: I know there are many — Muslim and non-Muslim — who question whether we can forge this new beginning. Some are eager to stoke the flames of division, and to stand in the way of progress.”

Example: “As a student of history, I also know civilization’s debt to Islam. It was Islam — at places like Al-Azhar — that carried the light of learning through so many centuries, paving the way for Europe’s Renaissance and Enlightenment.”

Farming and Ranching

Humans have long controlled their environments by raising crops and animals. President Obama describes hatred as something that can be sown like seeds on a farm, while extremist violence breeds fear and mistrust like ranchers breed animals, and tension is fed by colonialism like ranchers feed their animals.

Example: “So long as our relationship is defined by our differences, we will empower those who sow hatred rather than peace, those who promote conflict rather than the cooperation that can help all of our people achieve justice and prosperity.”

Example: “The attacks of September 11, 2001 and the continued efforts of these extremists to engage in violence against civilians has led some in my country to view Islam as inevitably hostile not only to America and Western countries, but also to human rights. All this has bred more fear and more mistrust.”

Example: “More recently, tension has been fed by colonialism that denied rights and opportunities to many Muslims, and a Cold War in which Muslim-majority countries were too often treated as proxies without regard to their own aspirations.”

Music and Theater

Comparisons are often made between politics and theater or music. In this case, politicians and countries can play a role in fulfilling Palestinian aspirations while there is musical harmony between traditions and progress.

Example: “I am honored to be in the timeless city of Cairo, and to be hosted by two remarkable institutions. And together, you represent the harmony between tradition and progress.”

Example: “To play a role in fulfilling Palestinian aspirations, to unify the Palestinian people, Hamas must put an end to violence, recognize past agreements, recognize Israel’s right to exist.”

Buildings

Politicians often compare government programs to buildings. Thus we can take concrete actions and build new programs and countries.

Example: “We are taking concrete actions to change course. I have unequivocally prohibited the use of torture by the United States, and I have ordered the prison at Guantanamo Bay closed by early next year.” (Applause.)

Example: “Now is the time for Palestinians to focus on what they can build.”

Example: “Although I believe that the Iraqi people are ultimately better off without the tyranny of Saddam Hussein, I also believe that events in Iraq have reminded America of the need to use diplomacy and build international consensus to resolve our problems whenever possible.” (Applause.)

Personification

Countries are often seen as people in the type of metaphors known as personification. In this case, President Obama speaks of countries expanding their reach while Americans will not turn their backs on the Palestinians.

Example: “They have affiliates in many countries and are trying to expand their reach. These are not opinions to be debated; these are facts to be dealt with.”

Example: “And America will not turn our backs on the legitimate Palestinian aspiration for dignity, opportunity, and a state of their own.” (Applause.)

Physical Forces

It is quite striking that the most common type of metaphor used by President Obama to describe the problems in the Middle East are those metaphors of physical forces. He describes countries being shaped by culture, elevated by a good world order or bonded with other countries. The solidity of physical objects are described in various ways such as bonds which are unbreakable while freedoms are indivisible and beliefs that are unyielding as if they are all made of steel. Governments can also take hold of and maintain power as if they are physical objects. However, the most common metaphor in the entire speech is by far that of tension, used to describe the unrest in the Middle East, as if the countries are objects under tremendous pressure. President Obama used the metaphor of tension a total of nine times.

Example: “We are shaped by every culture, drawn from every end of the Earth, and dedicated to a simple concept: E pluribus unum — “’Out of many, one.’”

Example: “Yet in this new age, such attitudes are self-defeating. Given our interdependence, any world order that elevates one nation or group of people over another will inevitably fail.”

Example: “America’s strong bonds with Israel are well known. This bond is unbreakable. It is based upon cultural and historical ties, and the recognition that the aspiration for a Jewish homeland is rooted in a tragic history that cannot be denied.”

Example: “Moreover, freedom in America is indivisible from the freedom to practice one’s religion.”

Example: “But I do have an unyielding belief that all people yearn for certain things: the ability to speak your mind and have a say in how you are governed; confidence in the rule of law and the equal administration of justice; government that is transparent and doesn’t steal from the people; the freedom to live as you choose.”

Example: “So no matter where it takes hold, government of the people and by the people sets a single standard for all who would hold power: You must maintain your power through consent, not coercion; you must respect the rights of minorities, and participate with a spirit of tolerance and compromise; you must place the interests of your people and the legitimate workings of the political process above your party. Without these ingredients, elections alone do not make true democracy.”

Example: “We meet at a time of great tension between the United States and Muslims around the world — tension rooted in historical forces that go beyond any current policy debate.”

Journey

Not surprisingly, President Obama also uses a wide variety of journey metaphors to explain how the Middle East needs to progress from chaos to peace. Some long journeys require studying a road map, and then people need to take steps to start the journey or launch their vehicles as if they are rockets. People who take the journeys need to make sure they are not going down a dead end, or trapped in a certain place; rather they must move forward. They need to go down the correct path, although it may be dangerous. They may also need to understand what brought them to a certain point of the journey before they can continue forward, or find a bridge to a new route. They may need to look for a beacon in the distance to achieve their goal as if they are on a ship in stormy seas looking for a lighthouse.

Example: “The obligations — the obligations that the parties have agreed to under the road map are clear. For peace to come, it is time for them — and all of us — to live up to our responsibilities.”

Example: “Progress in the daily lives of the Palestinian people must be a critical part of a road to peace, and Israel must take concrete steps to enable such progress.”

Example: “On science and technology, we will launch a new fund to support technological development in Muslim-majority countries, and to help transfer ideas to the marketplace so they can create more jobs.”

Example: “This same story can be told by people from South Africa to South Asia; from Eastern Europe to Indonesia. It’s a story with a simple truth: that violence is a dead end.”

Example: “Rather than remain trapped in the past, I’ve made it clear to Iran’s leaders and people that my country is prepared to move forward.”

Example: “This is not simply about America’s interests. It’s about preventing a nuclear arms race in the Middle East that could lead this region and the world down a hugely dangerous path.”

Example: “It’s easier to start wars than to end them. It’s easier to blame others than to look inward. It’s easier to see what is different about someone than to find the things we share. But we should choose the right path, not just the easy path.”

Example: “I do so recognizing that change cannot happen overnight. I know there’s been a lot of publicity about this speech, but no single speech can eradicate years of mistrust, nor can I answer in the time that I have this afternoon all the complex questions that brought us to this point. But I am convinced that in order to move forward, we must say openly to each other the things we hold in our hearts and that too often are said only behind closed doors.”

Example: “Around the world, we can turn dialogue into interfaith service, so bridges between peoples lead to action — whether it is combating malaria in Africa, or providing relief after a natural disaster.”

Example: “For over a thousand years, Al-Azhar has stood as a beacon of Islamic learning; and for over a century, Cairo University has been a source of Egypt’s advancement.”

*******

This speech is interesting for several reasons. Historically, it is the only speech I know of given by a sitting U.S. president from Cairo, Egypt. Metaphorically, it contains a wide variety of rich metaphors. While the journey metaphors were not surprising, it is telling that there were many metaphors of physical forces to describe the unrest in the Middle East while the most frequent metaphor of all was that of tension. Sadly, there has not been much progress in the Middle East since this speech in 2009. Even more tension has arisen since the growth of ISIS and the more recent terrorist attacks. I will continue to monitor how metaphors are used to describe the continued acts of terrorism around the world.

Next time: Back to the campaign trail

Metaphors of the 2016 Iowa Caucuses

February 7, 2016Figurative Language, Media, Metaphors, Politics, warDemocrats, figurative language, metaphors, politicians, politics, RepublicansAndrew Gallagher

The 2016 Iowa caucuses were held this past week. Television news broadcasts, as well as newspaper, radio and online reports, were filled with reports of the results of the voting. I looked at a few randomly chosen articles from online websites. I was not surprised that many articles were filled with political metaphors. Two articles in particular, one from CNN and another from NPR, contained a few colorful examples of political metaphors. All of the examples below are taken directly from the texts of the articles. Italics are mine. Each quotation is labeled as being from either the CNN or NPR article.

Nature

Metaphors from nature are very common in politics. One of the most common ways to describe local political movements is to say that it is a grassroots movement, as if people are blades of grass growing in a local area. One way to describe a political group that is split into many parts is to say that it is fractured, as if it is a rock that is broken in two. We can also describe unusual political situations as if they are chemicals that might explode, saying that they are volatile combinations.

grassroots

Example: “And Marco Rubio’s stronger-than-expected showing could mark him as the establishment’s best hope against a grassroots revolt in next week’s New Hampshire primary and beyond.” CNN

$blog - nature - fractured rocks$ volatile, fractured

Example: “One thing is clear after Monday night’s Iowa caucuses: there’s a long, volatile election season ahead before two deeply fractured parties can unite behind a nominee.” CNN

Body Position

We also commonly use experiences with our sense of physical power in our bodies to describe personal or political viewpoints. We often describe asserting one’s rights as standing up for something, while a person representing the interests of a group of people might be described as standing for them. One quotation from Ted Cruz uses both of these metaphors.

stand up, stand for

Example: “’It is breathtaking to see what happens when so many Americans stand up and decide they’re fed up with what happens in Washington and they want something different. They want a leader they can trust, they want a leader that stands for them against the corruption of Washington,’ Cruz told CNN’s Dana Bash in an interview aired Tuesday on ‘New Day.’” CNN

Fighting and Hunting

Competition between candidates in an election is often referred to as a series of battles or fights. Candidates may be described as firing shots, beating or beating out opponents or fending off attacks. We also see people described as being in the hunt as if a group of people are tracking wild animals with weapons. At the same time, a campaign may be compared to the military crusades of the 11^th – 13^th centuries.

The Wolf and Fox Hunt, Peter Paul Rubens, 1616

battles, in the hunt

Example: “So for all the predictions that it was a two-way battle for evangelical support, the Florida senator [Marco Rubio] — who was stressing his own faith in last week’s debate and on the trail in the final stretch — was just as much in the hunt and made it a three-way contest.” NPR

fire shots, wage a crusade

Example: “Claiming victory, Cruz fired immediate shots at both Trump and the party elites he has so infuriated by waging an anti-establishment crusade that has nevertheless endeared him to the GOP’s rank and file.” CNN

The South Korean Women's Fencing team won the Silver Medal at the 2012 London Olympic Games — The South Korean Women’s Fencing team won the Silver Medal at the 2012 London Olympic Games

fend off

Example: “Trump, meanwhile, kept trying to fend off questions about his ground operation and whether the huge crowds the reality-TV star drew would translate into enough votes for him to win.” NPR

beat out

Example: “Cruz beat out businessman Donald Trump and Sen. Marco Rubio (R-FL), who finished just behind Trump.” CNN

Sports and Games

Elections are also compared to games, horse races and gambling activities. The work done by staff and volunteers to encourage local people in a certain state is called a ground game, while elections themselves are called races or horse races, and certain campaign strategies are called gambling with the election that may or may pay off in the casino.

ground games

Example: “Ground games and retail politics still matter.” NPR

gamble

Example: “Donald Trump thought he could upend Iowa caucus traditions. The gamble didn’t pay off.” NPR

race

Example: “On the GOP side, it was a three-way race for evangelical voters.” NPR

Width: Middles and Edges

Political viewpoints are often compared to left and right sides of the political spectrum. However, politicians who are moderate in their views may be described as being in the middle of the road, as if all political views are spread across a roadway going forward in an election. In another set of metaphors, we describe the difference in election results as being measured across a gap or physical distance. Thus we have the differences described as an edge of a sharp blade or a small margin, elsewhere as being slim, narrow, or razor thin.

middle of the road

Example: “Her real strength was with middle-of-the-road Democrats — but unfortunately for her, that share had significantly dropped. This year, just 28 percent of voters identified themselves as moderates, down 12 points from 2008. She had a 23-point edge over Sanders with that bloc, though.” NPR

narrow

Example: “Trump was just narrowly their second choice with 22 percent. But it was Rubio who performed much better than expected to get 21 percent of the evangelical vote.” NPR

slimmer

Example: “’We lost (the nonwhite vote), but that gap is growing slimmer and slimmer between the secretary and myself. I think you’ll find as we get to South Carolina and other states, that when the African-American community, the Latino community, looks at our record, looks at our agenda, we’re going to get more and more support,’ Sanders told Cuomo on ‘New Day.’” CNN

margins

Example: “Instead, her margin of victory over Sanders was vanishingly small.” NPR

edges

Example: “But what Sanders did do was bring in more liberal voters to buoy him. Twenty-eight percent of voters described themselves as very liberal — a 10-point jump from 2008. Sanders won those voters by 19 points. Clinton had a 6-point edge with the 40 percent of voters who described themselves as somewhat liberal.” NPR

razor thin

Example: “Hillary Clinton declared victory early Tuesday morning in a razor-thin contest against Bernie Sanders in Iowa. But Democratic party officials have not yet declared a winner.” CNN

*******

It never ceases to amaze me how often we use metaphors when we talk about politics. These two articles describing the results of the Iowa caucuses demonstrate how common these metaphors are. I look forward to hearing what other metaphors are used as we go through the wild and crazy primary season leading up to the 2016 presidential elections.

Next time: More metaphors from the Republican and Democratic primaries.

Signature Issues – Synecdoche Part 2

December 13, 2015Figurative Language, Media, Metaphors, Politics, Rhetoric, Uncategorized, warDemocrats, ESL/EFL learners, figurative language, media, metaphors, politicians, politics, Republicans, warAndrew Gallagher

Hello! Sorry for the delay with today’s post. This has been crunch time for my teaching schedule at the end of the quarter. I have been swamped with testing, grades and endless paperwork. I am trying to catch up with my blog posts.

Today I would like to provide the second part of my analysis of synecdoche. The last time I discussed examples from the human body, land, furniture and buildings. This time I explain examples from writing, money, tool, weapons and machines.

Writing

the fine print

In many legal documents, the details of the agreement are very long and complex so they are often printed in small letters. This is usually referred to as the fine print. Thus the small print represents the details of a process or agreement. There is also usually a negative sense to the phrase since people are sometimes fooled by not reading the fine print in a document before they sign it.

Example: Barack Obama’s Affordable Care Act was a document of 2700 pages. Members of Congress had to read a lot of fine print before they could vote on it to be passed into law.

signature issues

A signature is a handwritten name. It represents the person’s identity and approval of the document that is signed. For politicians, the issues that they are most passionate about are sometimes called their signature issues. Their signature represents their interest in those issues.

Example: For many Republicans, the signature issues are taxes and government spending.

the pen is mightier than the sword

One of the oldest examples of synecdoche in English dates to a British play written in 1839. In this case the pen refers to the power of written documents to cause or end wars, while the sword refers to the power of military weapons to fight a war. Thus, saying that the pen is mightier than the sword indicates that diplomacy is more powerful than military solutions in times of war.

Example: For most American presidents, trouble in the Middle East is a difficult situation to handle. Some prefer military options while others say that the pen is mightier than the sword.

Money

hit the pocketbook

A pocketbook is a type of wallet for holding money. When politicians talk about a bad economy affecting the finances of average Americans, they may say that it will hit the pocketbook, meaning their wallet will have less money than usual. In this case, the container represents the important contents inside the container.

Example: The economic crisis of 2008 hit the pocketbook of millions of Americans.

purse strings

Purses for holding money used to be simple leather bags tied with a string. In an old phrase from the Middle Ages, holding the purse strings meant to control the money in the household. As an example of synecdoche, the purse strings represent the money contained in the purse.

Example: Congress likes to hold the purse strings for funding entitlement programs such as Social Security.

Tools and Weapons

field to fork

We use forks to eat our food. In these days of trying to reduce transportation and energy costs of moving food from farms to our groceries stores, politicians have created the phrase of reducing the costs of field to fork. The field represents the farms; the fork represents our eating of the food in our homes.

Example: Whenever gas prices go up, some politicians support the development of local farmers’ markets to reduce the costs of field to fork.

rattle sabers

A saber is a type of sword. When some members of Congress begin speaking of going to war against other countries, we may say that they are beginning to rattle their sabers. The sabers represent war or the willingness to go to war.

Example: After the War in Iraq ended in 2010, some conservative politicians began to rattle their sabers against Iran.

Machines

voters pull the lever

In some cases, when people go to vote in their communities, they must pull a lever on a small machine that records their votes. In a common phrase, we refer to the process of voting as pulling the lever. The lever represents the entire voting process.

Example: In a presidential campaign, each political party tries to persuade voters to pull the lever for their candidates.

across the dial

Before the digital age, radios had a dial that showed the frequencies of each radio station. To go across the dial meant to listen to a wide range of music and news stations. In a modern figurative phrase, to go across the dial means to survey many types of political views on a certain topic. The dial thus represents differing political opinions.

Example: In the 2008 presidential election, people from all across the dial voted for Barack Obama.

wired campaign

Wires have long been used in the construction of radio, television and computer equipment. To say that an office is wired, for example, means that it has the latest technology, especially the best Internet connections and website access. If a campaign is wired, this means that the campaign staff are connecting to voters through websites and social media outlets.

Example: In 2008, some pundits believed that Barack Obama’s wired 2008 campaign helped him win the election.

*******

I think most American English speakers would not even realize that these examples I have described in the last two posts are types of figurative language since they are so commonly used. Once again, I believe these uses of synecdoche illustrate how easily our minds can understand non-literal language and how common synecdoche is in the English language. I often wonder how speakers of English as a second language know what the heck we are talking about most of the time. As always, questions and comments are welcome!

Next time: A Holiday Smorgasbord of Metaphors!

Boots on the Ground – Synecdoche, Part 1

November 24, 2015Figurative Language, Immigration, Media, Metaphors, Politics, Rhetoric, Terrorism, warESL/EFL learners, figurative language, politics, synecdoche, warAndrew Gallagher

One of the most common uses of figurative language in American politics these days is the phrase boots on the ground. I have discussed this once before in an earlier post. Technically this type of figurative language is not a metaphor, rather is it something known as synecdoche (sih-NECK-duh-key) but it is so common I feel I must explain it further. Synecdoche has many complex patterns of usage, but for our purposes here, we can say that it occurs when a part of something represents a whole. For example, in the sailing phrase all hands on deck, the hands represent the sailors who will be doing the work.

In the most recent Democratic debate, Martin O’Malley read a note from an anguished mother of a service member and objected to the usage of the phrase boots on the ground.

“I was in Burlington, Iowa. And a mom of a service member of ours who served two duties in Iraq said, Governor O’ Malley, please, when you’re with your other candidates and colleagues on stage, please don’t use the term ‘boots on the ground’. Let’s don’t use the term ‘boots on the ground’.

My son is not a pair of boots on the ground. These are American soldiers and we fail them when we fail to take into account what happens the day after a dictator falls and when we fail to act with a whole of government approach with sustainable development, diplomacy, and our economic power in alignment with our principles.”

This concerned mother touches on a controversial aspect of figurative language, i.e., whether or not English speakers use these types of language to deliberately obfuscate the true meaning of the phrase. For example, we have uses of euphemisms in English which are created solely to describe something unpleasant in a more pleasing way, such as with passing away to mean “dying,” or enhanced interrogation techniques to mean “torture.” We can also find certain types of metaphors that have a negative implication about certain political topics, such as a flood of immigrants or a jittery stock market. I have discussed these examples in two earlier posts as well.

However, I am not sure if common examples of synecdoche are created to hide the real meaning of a phrase. Here are a few examples of synecdoche derived from concepts of the human body, land, furniture and buildings. Please let me know what you think! Next week I will share some examples from other interesting categories.

Body

heads of state

In a common phrase, the leaders of state governments are referred to as heads of state. In this case, the part of the body, the head, represents the whole person.

Example: Every year the heads of state from the largest nations meet at economic summits.

joint chiefs of staff

Many departments in government are managed by a head person, sometimes referred to as a chief. In what is now considered a dead metaphor, the word chief is derived from a French word meaning head, similar to the word chef meaning the person in charge of the cooking. Thus, the chiefs are the heads of the department. In U.S. government, the heads of the different branches of the military are collectively called the joint chiefs of staff.

Example: After the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the joint chiefs of staff advised President Bush on how to deal with the terrorists.

standing on shoulders

In cases of great success, some people say that they could succeed only because they stood on the shoulders to the people who came before them. Figuratively, the shoulders represent the people and their efforts that they are standing on.

Example: When Barack Obama became the first African-American president, he was standing on the shoulders of Martin Luther King, Jr., Medgar Evers and the Reverend Jesse Jackson among others.

boots on the ground/boot camp

In a common expression of the quantity of military troops, we say that we have boots on the ground. The boots refer to the soldiers wearing the boots. Similarly, the training grounds for new soldiers is sometimes called boot camp for the same reason.

Example: In 2007, President Bush requested more boots on the ground to help win the War in Iraq. This troop surge eventually did lead to the end of the war.

Land and Country

American soil

As mentioned in the chapter on Nature, soil can be representative of the country that lives on that soil.

Example: The 9/11 terrorist attacks were the first attacks on American soil since World War II.

the flag

The American flag is symbolic of the country of the United States. When Americans salute the flag, they are respecting the country that it represents.

Example: Each American president must respect the flag during military or diplomatic ceremonies.

Furniture and Buildings

seat of government

The capital city or group of buildings that contain government offices is known collectively as the seat of government. In this case, the government is represented by the places where the government officials literally sit to do their work.

Example: The seat of government for the United States is in Washington D.C.

seat/unseat

A person elected to the Senate or House of Representatives is said to have earned a seat in Congress. For the same reason described above, the literal seat in the building represents the person and the work he or she does for the government. When a person loses an election, we may say that he or she has been unseated.

Example: In 2014, many Democratic members of the House of Representatives were unseated in the November election.

sit on the committee

Members of Congress who are hardworking and well-liked may be asked to work on special committees trying to pass bills for defense, employment, budget, etc. When they do such work, we often say that they sit on the committee, as if the seat represents the work that the person is doing.

Example: Newly elected members of Congress hope that they can sit on important committees to best serve their districts and their country.

pass the bar

Many politicians began their careers as lawyers. To become a lawyer, a person must pass a series of difficult tests referred to as passing the bar. Originally, the bar referred to a railing separating a judge from the lawyers in a courtroom in the 16th century. In a case of synecdoche, the bar came to represent the entire process of beginning a lawyer.

Example: Mitt Romney and Barack Obama were both trained as lawyers. Romney passed the bar in Michigan while Obama passed the bar in Illinois.

board of directors

The word board used to mean a long table. Our modern phrase of a board of directors originated from the practice of people sitting together around a table at a meeting.

Example: Many politicians who work with local business leaders must sometimes speak with the board of directors of those companies.

the bench

In the Middle Ages, judges sat on a wooden bench. The bench itself has come to represent an entire court or legal system. Supreme Court Justices are said to read their sit on or read their verdicts from the bench.

Example: In 2010, Barack Obama nominated Elena Kagan to the bench of the Supreme Court.

reach across the aisle

Democrats and Republicans usually sit in different sections of the seating area in Congress separated by an aisle. When they work together on passing legislation, we may say that they are reaching across the aisle. Thus the aisle of the floor represents the separation between Democrats and Republicans.

Example: In the first few years of Barack Obama’s presidency, some Republicans accused him of not reaching across the aisle. Some Democrats, however, complained that it was the Republicans who were blocking bipartisan cooperation.

lobbyist

A lobby is the main entryway in a large building. In the early days of American government, people wishing to gain favor from politicians waited in the lobbies of governmental buildings to visit the legislators. Later the term lobbyist referred to these people hoping from special favors from the government.

Example: Health care advocates claim that tobacco company lobbyists kept the dangers of smoking from public view for many decades.

Next time: More examples of synecdoche.

Ted Cruz Takes a Right Turn

September 15, 2015Figurative Language, Media, Metaphors, Politics, Rhetoric, Sports, warESL/EFL learners, figurative language, media, metaphors, politicians, politics, Republicans, Ted CruzAndrew Gallagher

Republican presidential candidate Ted Cruz has been in the news lately. His blunt attacks on the current administration and his own party have endeared him to many conservative voters and allied him with the controversial front runner Donald Trump. A recent Time magazine article nicely summarizes his campaign successes so far and provides a treasure trove of political metaphors. The article is by author Alex Altman entitled Right Turns Only: Ted Cruz’s Radical Plan to Win the White House in the September 7/14 double issue, pages 52 – 55. Online you can read the article here if you are a subscriber.

Altman’s description includes a variety of conceptual metaphors. In addition to the usual sports and military metaphors, I will highlight several interesting examples from agriculture, cooking, religion and vehicles. All quotations are from the article. Some examples are listed several times if they contain more than one metaphor. All metaphors are in italics, not in the original.

Agriculture

seed money

Seeds are used to grow vegetables in a garden or farm. Seeds, metaphorically, are the starting points of a project. Likewise, seed money is the cash or capital used to finance an expensive project. In this example, the authors of the article are explaining how Ted Cruz’s campaign style has attracted big donors.

Example: “The pitch has attracted plenty of seed money–more than $50 million between his campaign and affiliated super PACs, a total that ranks second only to Jeb Bush’s.”

take root

Trees have roots that not only hold the tree into the ground but symbolize the beginnings of the tree’s growth. The concept of roots is commonly used metaphorically to mean the origin of something.

Example: “At 13, he enrolled in an after-school program designed to inculcate the merits of free-market economics. By then his obsession with the Constitution had taken root.”

swaths

Specific farming terms or techniques can also be used in politics. A swath is a wide portion of a land recently plowed or harvested. The term swath may also be used to describe a large group of voters.

Example: “Cruz’s plan is to corner the market for Tea Party conservatives and compete for swaths of the evangelical and libertarian vote.”

milk

Some farm animals such as dairy cows and goats are used to obtain their milk for human consumption. This process is known as milking. Metaphorically, if one takes advantage of a situation for a long period of time, this may also be known as milking. The author of the article, Alex Altman, describes Ted Cruz’s amazing childhood, having been raised in Canada by Cuban refugees who fled the Batista regime in the 1950s but implies that he talks about it too often to gain sympathy from his supporters.

Example: “Few politicians milk as much mileage from biography as Cruz.”

Cooking

cooked up

Cooking is a way of preparing food to eat. It is normally a long process that takes a large number of ingredients and the skill of the chef. Metaphorically, the concept of cooking has a negative connotation, in that one can create something that is not true by cooking it up.

Example: “In recent weeks alone, he has dismissed global warming as a fiction cooked up by government stooges…”

canned jokes

In the 1800s, people starting preserving food by putting in tightly sealed jars and tin cans. The so-called canned food was great for keeping food from spoiling, but canned food also earned a reputation for not having much taste and always tasting the same no matter how it was cooked. In popular terms, a speech or set of ideas can be described as being canned if they are not original or are not very exciting.

Example: “His stump speech, delivered without notes or teleprompter, is precisely honed, down to the canned jokes and the pauses for emphasis.”

sprinkles

Some desserts such as cookies or cupcakes often have colored sugar bits placed on top of the frosting. These small candies are called sprinkles because one must sprinkle them onto the surface from a small jar. Metaphorically, a person can sprinkle a public talk with various types of comments to add flavor or color to the speech.

Example: “He sprinkles his speeches with social cues–ain’ts and God-bless-yous and Chuck Norris jokes–that show the audience he’s one of them.”

skewer

Small pieces of meat can be cooked on a barbecue grill by putting all the pieces on a long thin metal rod called a skewer. The skewered meat can be cooked along with vegetables to make a wonderful meal. In popular terms, a person can be skewered by someone or a group of people by very strong criticism.

Example: “His taste for skewering his own party often surprises even those familiar with his scorched-earth style.”

Sports

race

A horse race involves people betting a lot of money on horses that they think can win. In a political campaign, people put a lot of money behind candidates whom they hope can win an election. Thus an election is often compared to a horse race.

Example: “The party has compressed the 2016 primary calendar into a few months in order to limit the damage the race inflicts on the eventual nominee.”

jockey

When the horses are running in a race, the jockeys (persons who ride the horses) must try to get in the best position possible so that they can win the race. Of course, every jockey wants to be on the inside track so they must fight to get where they want to be. This is called jockeying for position. In politics, we may also say that candidates must jockey for position to gain the best advantage and win the election.

Example: “So while rivals jockeyed for scraps of territory in Iowa and New Hampshire, Cruz barnstormed the nation’s reddest precincts in a bus with Right turns only plastered above the bumper.”

up for grabs

In basketball, the game begins by the referee throwing the ball straight up in the air. This is called the toss up. The player who can reach and control the ball after the toss up will win the ball for his or her team. In common terms, any competition or election that might be one by any player or team may be called a toss up or up for grabs.

Example: “Seven Southern states with about a third of the delegates needed to win the nomination are likely to be up for grabs on March 1, a Super Tuesday bonanza Cruz calls the SEC primary.”

victory lap

In car racing, the winning car will often take one more lap around the track so that the fans can cheer for the winner. The same is true of track and field runners. This lap is called the victory lap. In metaphorical terms, a person in business or politics who celebrates after a big win may be described as taking a victory lap.

Example: “Big crowds greeted him like a gridiron legend. But this was no victory lap. The Texas Senator has a new Southern strategy. Seven Southern states with about a third of the delegates needed to win the nomination are likely to be up for grabs on March 1, a Super Tuesday bonanza Cruz calls the SEC primary.”

turbocharge

The power of a normal engine can be greatly increased with the addition of a device called a turbocharger. Metaphorically, any significant increase in energy, money or progress may be referred to as turbocharging.

Example: “The first presidential debate had boosted his poll numbers and turbocharged his fundraising.”

muscle

Athletes need strong, muscular bodies to compete at the collegiate or professional level. Having muscle implies that one is strong and ready for competition. In politics, a person or group with muscle means that they are ready for a political battle.

Example: “Cruz boasts that he is the rare true conservative with the fundraising firepower and organizational muscle to slug it out with the GOP’s Establishment favorites through a grinding national campaign.”

throw a Hail Mary

In football, when a team is losing and has one last chance to win or tie the game, the quarterback may throw a long pass into the end zone hoping one of his receivers can catch it. The success of such a pass is so unlikely, people joke that you need to say a catholic Hail Mary prayer to have any chance of succeeding. Thus, throwing this type of pass is known as throwing a Hail Mary. In business or politics, trying to do something that is very unlikely to succeed is also known as a Hail Mary.

Example: “’It is unlikely to be possible for a candidate to do what some candidates in previous decades have done,’ Cruz explains, ‘which is go camp out in an early state, spend a year there, throw a Hail Mary and get enough momentum to win the nomination.’”

Religion

true believers

People who are completely faithful to their religion may be called true believers. In politics, the same phrase may be used to describe those who have complete faith in a political leader or certain political ideologies.

Example: “Cruz is convinced there are enough true believers to push a proven warrior into the White House.”

party faithful

In a specific metaphorical use of the concept of faith, we say that members of a political party are faithful to that party and will always vote for candidates and policies presented by that party.

Example: “When he preaches to the party faithful, Cruz ditches the lectern and roams the stage, carving up his targets in tightly constructed paragraphs.”

pilgrimage

In some religions, people take long journeys to go to the birthplace of their faith or to see a beloved religious leader. This type of journey is called a pilgrimage. In politics, journeys by people to see their favorite politician may also be called a pilgrimage.

Example: “The southeast is a strange place for a political pilgrimage.”

Journey/vehicles

right turns only

Our sense of what is left, right and center is derived from the orientation to our own bodies, e.g., left hand, right leg, etc. Historically, in politics, left indicated liberal and right indicated conservative. This usage dates to the French National Assembly in 1789 when the more conservative politicians sat to the right side of the president’s chair, while the liberal thinkers sat on the left. We still use these terms today. Interestingly, we have extended the meaning of left and right to turning directions while driving a vehicle, making a left turn indicates that one is becoming more liberal while making a right turn means becoming more conservative. Ted Cruz has capitalized on this metaphorical usage and uses a slogan of right turns only for his supporters.

Example: “So while rivals jockeyed for scraps of territory in Iowa and New Hampshire, Cruz barnstormed the nation’s reddest precincts in a bus with Right turns only plastered above the bumper.”

barnstorm

In the early 1800s, theatrical troupes put on plays in barns for local communities. This was known as barnstorming. The term took on a new meaning in the early 1900s when pilots with newly invented airplanes crisscrossed the country putting on air shows for small communities. In politics, candidates who visit all parts of the country giving campaign speeches may also be described as barnstorming.

Example: “So while rivals jockeyed for scraps of territory in Iowa and New Hampshire, Cruz barnstormed the nation’s reddest precincts in a bus with Right turns only plastered above the bumper.”

drive

The word drive has many meanings. In the context of vehicles, to drive means to operate a vehicle. Figuratively, any action to move a process forward may also be known as driving.

Example: “Instead of softening his rhetoric, he believes a pure conservative message can drive millions of disaffected white and evangelical voters back to the polls.”

Military

warrior

A military soldier is often called a warrior, i.e., one who goes to war. In politics, a person who fights for his or her principles in campaigns may also be called a warrior.

Example: “Cruz is convinced there are enough true believers to push a proven warrior into the White House.”

World War I soldiers marching in Toronto, May 1918

rank and file

Large groups of soldiers can be arranged in horizontal rows called ranks, and vertical columns called files. Commanding officers are not arranged in such ways. Thus, the rank and file soldiers are the hardworking soldiers who are not in high positions. Metaphorically, ordinary people in business and politics may be referred to as the rank and file if they loyally support their business leaders and politicians.

Example: “The reinvention prompts some Republicans to suggest the party-crasher routine is an act Cruz created as he watched the GOP rank and file lurch to the right during the early years of the Obama presidency.”

stand up and fight, lead the fight

In boxing and the military, strong boxers or soldiers must stand up and fight dangerous battles. Metaphorically, politicians also stand up and fight for their principles in campaigns, in Congress or in the presidency. Those in leadership roles may also be described as leading the fight. Ordinary citizens may also be described as standing up and fighting for their rights as well.

Example: “’Voters should ask every candidate, Show me where you’ve stood up and fought,’ Cruz explains, digging into a double cheeseburger with jalapeños at a Whataburger outside Houston.”

Example: “’What I ask activists to do is to pick the 10 or 12 most important fights of the last several years,’ Cruz says as his SUV wheels toward another book signing in Texas. On every big conservative battle, he says, from Obamacare to government spending to religious liberty, I’ve been leading the fight.’”

command an army

Military leaders are often called commanders who control their armies. Metaphorically, a politician may also be described as someone who is commanding the army of his or her supporters.

Example: “Cruz is a constitutional scholar who commands a populist army, a careful tactician who picks long-shot fights.”

battle grounds

Example: “But if the 2016 battle is waged on those grounds, it may favor the fighter who only turns right.”

firepower

A gun, rifle, or cannon can be described in terms of its explosive power depending on the amount of gunpowder used in its bullets or shells. This is also called firepower. Metaphorically, the ability to raise money or win elections in politics may be called firepower.

Example: “Cruz boasts that he is the rare true conservative with the fundraising firepower and organizational muscle to slug it out with the GOP’s Establishment favorites through a grinding national campaign.”

target

With guns as well as bows and arrows, people practice shooting their weapons by aiming at a target a long distance away. The literal target has been changed to mean a metaphorical goal in a process or project. In politics, candidates and elected officials try to please their constituents who may vote for them. These voters may be referred to as the target audience.

Example: “The goal is to determine their target audience and feed each segment a message calibrated to sway them.”

long-shot fights, long-shot bid

To shoot at a target far away is called taking a long shot. The farther away the target, the less likely the person can accurately hit it. In common terms, a long shot is something that has a very low likelihood of happening. In politics, a long shot is a person who is not likely to win an election or an event that is not likely to happen. In the following examples, we see uses of long-shot fights and long-shot bids.

Example: “Cruz is a constitutional scholar who commands a populist army, a careful tactician who picks long-shot fights.”

Example: “But when Cruz launched a long-shot bid for the U.S. Senate in 2012, he campaigned as a self-styled insurgent.”

scorched earth

In some military operations, an army will burn all of the land belonging to an enemy so that it is unusable. This strategy is known as a scorched earth policy. Metaphorically, criticism of an adversary that is done in a quick and brutal fashion may be described as a scorched earth policy or style.

Example: “His taste for skewering his own party often surprises even those familiar with his scorched-earth style.”

badge of honor

Military personnel who demonstrate extraordinary bravery in battle are often awarded medals or badges of honor for their heroism. In popular terms, any a person who is known for brave acts may be considered as someone metaphorically wearing a badge of honor.

Example: “From the time he arrived in the Senate in 2013, Cruz grasped that pariah status in Washington can be a powerful weapon, so he wears his colleagues’ contempt as a badge of honor.”

New Zealand soldiers in a trench in France in World War I

fighting trench warfare

During World War I, soldiers had to dig deep ditches or trenches to protect themselves from enemy attacks. This type of fighting wars was called fighting in the trenches. Metaphorically, politicians involved in complex negotiations or arguments may be described as fighting in the trenches or fighting trench warfare.

Example: “It’s entirely possible that one person wins Iowa, a different person wins New Hampshire, and a third wins South Carolina,” Cruz says. “Which means then you’re fighting trench warfare nationwide.”

dig in

The action of creating a trench for protection in a battle is sometimes known as digging in. Metaphorically, taking a firm stand on an issue and not budging from one’s position may also be known as digging in.

Example: “But with so many hopefuls like Cruz raising so much early money, the prospects of a costly, drawn-out fight are now very real. And Cruz is digging in for the long haul.”

*******

As I have mentioned many times in this space, I am always amazed that ordinary conversation and writing are filled with conceptual metaphors. Even a brief article (2300 words) by my count contains about 80 different metaphors. I have only analyzed a portion of them here. While it is common to compare elections to sports competitions or wars, it is fascinating that we have metaphors based on cooking, farming or journeys as well. It is more evidence to support the theories of Lakoff and Johnson who have argued for years that metaphorically thinking is part of normal cognition. Comments and questions are always welcome!

When Liberals Attack!

July 19, 2015Figurative Language, Media, Metaphors, Politics, Rhetoric, warBernie Sanders, Democrats, Elizabeth Warren, ESL/EFL learners, figurative language, media, metaphors, obama, politicians, politics, Republicans, warAndrew Gallagher

I have been studying the announcement speeches of the most recent Republican candidates (15 and counting!) but I was disappointed to find that there were almost no metaphors in their speeches. They were quite uniform in their plain language, laying out the problems of the United States and the steps they would take to solve those problems. I will keep looking for more interesting uses of metaphors in the speeches of those candidates.

In the meantime, I was just reading a fascinating article in a recent Time magazine article by Michael Scherer. If you are a subscriber, you can read the article online here. In the paper edition, it is “Up with People: Populist Fury and Economic Anxiety are Remaking Democratic Politics. It’s the Message of Elizabeth Warren,” pp. 40-45 in the July 20, 2015 issue.

The author Scherer discusses how Senators Elizabeth Warren and Bernie Sanders are challenging former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton on many progressive and populist issues facing the country today. I found a nice variety of metaphors used to describe the political moves the various liberal leaders were using. There were interesting uses of metaphors from communication, fire, fragile objects, physical forces, boxing and war. As always, all examples are taken directly from the article. The metaphors are highlighted with italics, and some examples may be repeated if there are several different metaphors in the same passage. Enjoy!

Communication

One area of metaphor usage I have not previously discussed is that of communication terms. A literal act of communication can be used to metaphorically describe a larger, abstract form of communication. For example, a simple action or statement may be described as something being said loud and clear, a clear signal, or calling out someone. Similarly, we may say that an action is a clarion call, a clarion being a medieval trumpet used to call the start of a battle. On a lighter note, we can also talk about a punch line, the final line of a joke. Metaphorically, a punch line is an important or unexpected statement in a description of a problem.

call out

Example: “In December she [Warren] attacked the White House and Democratic leaders for agreeing to roll back limits on derivatives trading by federally insured banks, even calling out Obama’s current and former advisers for their work with Citigroup, one of the major proponents of the change.”

clear signal

Example: “Brookings scholars Elaine Kamarck and Bill Galston, for instance, both veterans of the Wall Street–friendly Democratic Leadership Council, sent a clear signal to Clinton this summer when they proposed new curbs on executive compensation, stock buybacks and other forms of financialization that they argue have bled the economy of jobs.”

loud and clear

Example: “‘They are sending a message not to Hillary Clinton, not to Jeb Bush,’ he said. ‘They are sending a message loud and clear to the people that own America, to the Big Money interests, that enough is enough. They cannot have it all.’”

clarion call

Example: “The new fire is fueled by a shift in economics that feels like a crisis for many Americans and a clarion call for government action among liberals.”

punch line

Example: “‘Elizabeth [Warren] is, you know, a politician like everyone else,’ he told a reporter in May. ‘Her arguments don’t stand the test of fact and scrutiny.’ But he could not prevent the punch line: 78% of House Democrats and 73% of the Senate Democratic caucus initially voted against Obama, who prevailed only by restructuring the votes with the GOP.”

Physical Forces

It is very common to describe abstract actions as normal physical forces. We can find examples of shrinking, squeezing, or pressuring someone or something. There are also examples of holding sway and steamrolling families. Most famously, we have the nickname of supply-side economics as trickle down economics, as if money invested in corporations will trickle down like water to the middle and low socioeconomic classes.

shrink

Example: “‘The Wall Street wing of the Democratic Party is shrinking quite dramatically,’ says Robert Reich, a former Labor Secretary under Bill Clinton.”

squeeze

Example: “Obama talked about the middle-class squeeze as far back as 2005, and he shares much of Warren’s agenda, from increasing the minimum wage to expanding infrastructure investments and overtime pay.”

pressure

Example: “Warren, who clearly intends to apply as much pressure as she can on Clinton, says with some coyness that it is “too early to say” whether she will join Sanders on the campaign trail.”

steamroll

Example: “‘Here is this coalition of giant credit-card companies whose plan was to improve their bottom line by 1 or 2 percentage points by just steamrolling millions of American families,’ she says.”

hold sway

Example: “The old arguments and alliances no longer hold sway and won’t draw crowds.”

trickle down

Example: “Clinton, for her part, has already adopted much of Warren’s language, attacking the idea in her campaign announcement speech that ‘if we let those at the top pay lower taxes and bend the rules, their success would trickle down to everyone else.’”

Physical Forces with Objects

There are certain metaphors of physical forces that involved specific objects. We can speak of social relationships as if they are physically tied with string or rope. Those ties can also be loosed like untying a knot in a rope. We also talk of bending the rules as if they are branches of a tree.

strong ties, cut ties

Example: “She [Warren] also concluded that the party’s strong ties to Wall Street were not anodyne or manageable. They were the problem.”

Example: [speaking of Warren] “But a woman whose family finances and political fortunes have long been entangled with the biggest Wall Street firms has not yet declared how far she is willing to take the party down the populist path, or whether she is willing to pay the price of cutting ties with some of her biggest backers.”

loose (verb)

Example: “But the next party agenda will be the province of the Democrats’ 2016 nominee, and centrists have been rushing to propose their own set of reforms, retreating from the long-held view that loosing capitalism from regulation would unleash benefits for all.”

bend the rules

Example: “Clinton, for her part, has already adopted much of Warren’s language, attacking the idea in her campaign announcement speech that ‘if we let those at the top pay lower taxes and bend the rules, their success would trickle down to everyone else.’”

Physical Forces with Animals

Working with animals leads to a several interesting metaphors. Wild or even domestic animals often need to be controlled as with leashes for dogs or reins for horses. The sudden release of a natural process may be called unleashing it, while controlling something that is more powerful than expected may be called reining it in.

unleash

Example: “But the next party agenda will be the province of the Democrats’ 2016 nominee, and centrists have been rushing to propose their own set of reforms, retreating from the long-held view that loosing capitalism from regulation would unleash benefits for all.”

rein in

Example: “Economists like Summers, who encouraged the banking deregulation of the 1990s as a way to increase growth, speak often now about targeted measures to rein in the ‘rents’ accrued by the wealthy, like limits on intellectual property, stronger enforcement of antitrust laws and tax reforms to increase purchasing power at the bottom.”

Fire

We all have experience with fire. A spark may start a fire, while fuel is needed to keep a fire burning. Metaphorically, something that is excited or aroused may be called something inflamed, while a process that is growing larger may be described as a fire that is being fueled.

inflamed

Example: “Not since Woodrow Wilson promised to break the ‘money monopoly’ and Franklin Roosevelt hollered ‘I welcome their hatred’ at the plutocrats has the Democratic Party found itself so inflamed against the intersection of wealth and power.”

fuel the fire

Example: “The new fire is fueled by a shift in economics that feels like a crisis for many Americans and a clarion call for government action among liberals.”

Fragile Objects

Abstract concepts may be compared to fragile objects that can be broken. We can break up or break down something or simply break it.

break

Example: “Not since Woodrow Wilson promised to break the ‘money monopoly’ and Franklin Roosevelt hollered ‘I welcome their hatred’ at the plutocrats has the Democratic Party found itself so inflamed against the intersection of wealth and power.”

break up

Example: “She [Warren] wants to break up the big banks, increase funding for Social Security and slow the revolving door between the White House and Wall Street.”

break down

Example: “But the similarities break down over how far and fast to go in financial regulation and free-trade agreements.”

Boxing

Politicians are often compared to boxers fighting in a ring. A boxer may also be known as a pugilist while someone can pick a fight, stand up and fight, fight back or get back on offense instead of simply defending against blows from an opponent.

pugilist

Example: [speaking of Warren] “A legal academic by training, a teacher by disposition and a pugilist to the core, she never sought politics as a career or party as an identity.”

pick fights

Example: “To see where the battle lines are drawn, all you have to do is list the fights Warren has picked with her own party over the past year.”

stand up and fight

Example: “In the meantime, Clinton is trying to get back on offense in her own party. ‘I take a backseat to no one when you look at my record in standing up and fighting for progressive values,’ she said, after speaking to a crowd of about 800 in New Hampshire.”

fight back

Example: “Obama, after promising hope and fighting back from the Great Recession, will almost certainly leave office having failed in the central economic challenge of his time: raising incomes for the American middle class.”

on offense

Example: “In the meantime, Clinton is trying to get back on offense in her own party.”

War

As I have pointed out many times before, politics in the United States is often compared to war between opposing parties. In some cases, politicians from a single party may be at war with themselves. People can be targets or be under attack from their enemies. There may also be battles between competitors and battle lines may be drawn before the beginning of a fight. In maritime battles, a ship can fire all of its guns on one side at the same time in an action known as a broadside. A ship that is shot full of holes will undoubtedly sink. A ship’s crew working for an incompetent or abusive captain may quit or mutiny. Metaphorically, a large verbal attack may be called a broadside, and a project may sink if it fails to make progress. Finally, people working for a failing politician may also mutiny and give up.

at war

Example: “… at the White House, where a frustrated President Obama has spent the summer at war with his own party over how to write the rules of global trade.”

target

Example: “House minority leader Nancy Pelosi says bluntly that Warren’s view of Obama as soft on Wall Street ‘is not the consensus in our party.’ Warren’s targets are less delicate. ‘I don’t know if she fully understands the global banking system,’ needles JPMorgan Chase CEO Jamie Dimon. Warren Buffett has suggested she be ‘less angry and demonizing.’”

under attack

Example: “The old arguments and alliances no longer hold sway and won’t draw crowds. And the giants of the party now find their credentials, and motivations, under attack.”

battle for the soul

Example: “‘The Democratic Party is being polarized to the left, laying the groundwork for a Tea Party–like insurrection,’ explains Bruce Josten, a top lobbyist for the U.S. Chamber of Commerce. ‘It is a battle for the soul of the Democratic Party.’”

battle lines are drawn

Example: “To see where the battle lines are drawn, all you have to do is list the fights Warren has picked with her own party over the past year.”

mutiny, sink, broadside

Example: “When Larry Summers, a top economic aide to both Presidents Obama and Clinton and a former consultant to Citibank, seemed close to getting his dream job as Chairman of the Federal Reserve, Warren joined a Democratic mutiny and sank his chances. This summer she launched a broadside against Mary Jo White, Obama’s Securities and Exchange Commission chair, accusing White of slow-rolling new rulemaking for the finance industry, and highlighting the conflicts of interest caused by her husband, who works at a Wall Street law firm.”

*******

I am always amazed at the wide variety of metaphors that can found in a short magazine article. It presents more evidence that we can barely talk about politics without using metaphors. See if you can find examples of metaphors the next time you pick up a news magazine.

Next time: More political metaphors in the news.

Metaphors in American Politics

Your guide to political metaphors used in American media – Andrew J. Gallagher, Ph.D.

Category Archives: war

FDR’s New Deal

A Tsunami of Immigrants?

Bernie Sanders’ Uphill Battle

Donald Trump: Battle Metaphors

Flashback: Obama’s Speech in Cairo, 2009

Metaphors of the 2016 Iowa Caucuses

Signature Issues – Synecdoche Part 2

Boots on the Ground – Synecdoche, Part 1

Ted Cruz Takes a Right Turn

When Liberals Attack!

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